Hydrocarbons, origin and availability

Oil and gas consist of hydrocarbons of varying composition from light gases such as methane and ethane, to complex mixtures of liquid substances more or less viscous at the surface temperature, such as naphtha (hydrocarbons of low viscosity) and bitumen (high viscosity hydrocarbons).

Both oil and gas may be combusted in oxygen at different temperatures according to the composition of the mixtures.

For that reason both are used as fuels for multiple purposes: for cooking (kerosene, natural gas), for car and truck engines (fuel oil and gasoline), aircraft engines (special gasoline), etc.

The exploitation of sources of oil and natural gas

Since ancient times human societies exploited the major hydrocarbons.

upwelling sites.

Where there were gas emissions and emissions of hydrocarbons and natural bitumen tar, local populations used them for lighting, heating and other purposes. This is the case of the tar lakes in Mesopotamia (Iraq) and the coastal regions of Venezuela.

From those beginnings, the role of oil as an energy source has been growing.

This trend has particularly accelerated since the invention of the combustion engine in the late nineteenth century.

Throughout the twentieth century, the consumption of oil increased exponentially up to the contemporary situation in which it represents the major source of energyworldwide.

While they are consumed everywhere, the production areas are restricted to certain geological areas, such as the foothills of some mountain ranges, continental shelves and surroundings of volcanic arcs.

Less frequently fields are located in continental shields and granite massifs.

Because of the economic role and its relative scarcity, it is of  of particular interest to know the origin, dynamics and location of sources of hydrocarbon deposits that can be exploited.

Theories about the origin of hydrocarbons

 Since  late 19th Century two theories about the origin of terrestrial hydrocarbons coexisted:

1) The biogenic theory, which held that hydrocarbons were of biological origin, resulting from the accumulation and “maturation” of fossil plants and animals, and

2)      The mineral or abiogenic theory, which argued that hydrocarbons were of mineral origin coming from inside the Earth, accumulating in areas with suitable geological conditions or sprouting in liquid or gas seeps on the surface.

The biogenic theory

Since the early 20th Century the biogenic hypothesis was imposed worldwide, particularly in Western countries.

Today, most geologists, both oil and structural geologists, sedimentologists and geophysicists, are inclined to think that hydrocarbons, oil and natural gas, have an old biological origin, and for that reason they are often called “fossil fuels”.

Being defined as fuels of biological origin, dependent on the accumulation of organic matter through geological time, their volumes would necessarily be restricted to the sedimentary basins and its vicinity. Sedimentary mantles are relatively thin (in geophysical terms). They are usually a few hundred or thousands of meters thick, and rarely exceed 10 kilometers, slightly more than one thousandth of the terrestrial radio (which is 6,500 km).

The conclusion of this prevailing scientific paradigm is that the exploitation of this resource gradually will fade and inevitably will end in the near future.

The mineral theory or abiogenic

The biogenic theory, which is accepted by most geologists, has been and is being challenged by some scientists, particularly Russians and Ukrainians, who argue that both oil and natural gas are of mineral origin, coming from inside the Earth, that their volumes are very large, and therefore it is unlikely that they will be exhausted in the foreseeable future.

The mineral theory was originally driven in the nineteenth century by famous Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, French chemist Marcellin Berthelot and others.

In 1877 Mendeleev said:

“A capital fact is that oil is born in the depths of the earth, and that it is there where we must seek its origin” 1 

Another scientist who developed the theory of mineral oil was the Russian geologist Nikolai Alexandrovich Kudryavtsev.

This researcher proposed the abiotic hypothesis in 1951 based on the huge volumes of hydrocarbons accumulated in bitumimous sands of Alberta, Canada, which he thought inexplicable in the absence of a plausible mother rock.

In 1967, Ukrainian geologist Emmanuil Chekaliuk developed a thermodynamic theory of the origin of oil. He sustained that it formed at high pressure and temperature deep in the Earth’s mantle. At the time it was noted that the theory had been confirmed by experimental studies by J.F. Kenney and his Russian colleagues.  

In the decades from 1970 to 2000, based on the above work, the Austrian astrophysicist Thomas Gold formulated a theory about the origin and evolution of hydrocarbons which he considered were generated from depth. This hypothesis included several innovative elements introducing a real paradigmatic review of many terrestrial geological processesl.

Gold’s vision goes beyond the oil issue to address multiple aspects in the field of earth sciences, proposing, with very solid criteria, new ways to interpret many geological phenomena, including the origin of metallic minerals and ores.
From "Unexhaustible? Petroleum and natural gas", D.Anton, Piriguazú Ediciones.

Future availability of petroleum and natural gas .

Petroleum issues are constantly on the front pages of the newspapers.

It is considered the most valuable resource in our contemporary energy hungry civilization.

Oil and its derivatives are essential to move cars, airplanes, thermoelectric plants and plastic industries. Its economic importance is indisputable.

Geopolitical interests have generated instability in several oil producing countries leading to conflicts and wars and sustained variation in prices. Sharp increases during the period 1970-1980 (from U$S 10 to U$S 100) per barrel, decreasing in the 1980s  and increasing again in the first decade of the 21st century. During the last two years a sudden retreat of barrels price took place, and by November 2015 it reached 40 U$S.

The price continued to descend reaching below 30 dollars to go up again.  Presently, in 2018,  the Brent barrel has attained 67 dollares.

One of the main arguments for the 1970s and other price increases at later dates, was based on the widespread belief that the genesis of oil and other hydrocarbons were biological in nature, and therefore oil fields would be restricted exclusively to the sedimentary basins of the world.

Most scientists assume that it is in these basins that fossil plants and/or animals have accumulated to give rise to oil and natural gas.

So much so, that in the common vocabulary, hydrocarbons are called “fossil fuels”.

According to this reasoning, stocks of oil and gas would be limited and would be, by definition, non-renewable resources.

The predicted relatively low volumes of hydrocarbons, their non-renewable nature and their widespread need, would explain and justify  past and potential future price increases and their importance in the economy of  many countries.

At present these premises are generally accepted and political strategies of states and business organizations are based on them.

It is the theory of biological origin or biogenic of  hydrocarbons.

However, with the currently available evidence, and based on the views of some astrophysicists and geologists, one can say that the belief that oil and gas have a fossil origin has a very weak scientific backing.

The substitute theory, which considers more adequately the data of reality, sustains that oil, natural gas and carbonaceous ore formations have a mineral origin and their stocks are virtually inexhaustible.

It is the mineral or abiogenic theory on the origin of hydrocarbons.

According to this approach, the hydrocarbons are generated through processes of planetary degassing. These are processes by which the various compounds of carbon and hydrogen rise from the planet’s interior and recombine in the upper mantle (adapting to new conditions of temperature and pressure) ascending into the Earth crust to accumulate in areas where this rise is obstructed (often in the sedimentary basins).

Some adherents to the mineral theory, particularly the Austrian astrophysicist Thomas Gold, argue that rising oil oxidizes in depth due to the action of certain bacteria (hyperthermal bacteria), forming water and carbon dioxide, and leaving behind reduced waste minerals (forming sometimes metallic ore).

These phenomena would occur in all planets of the solar system (and probably in other star systems) where temperature is appropriate. Therefore it would be reasonable to assume that this type of underground life would be the rule while the shallow life (as in the Earth) would be the exception.

Similarly, Gold says that the movements of hydrocarbonaceous fluids in depth and their surface emissions are causing the majority of seismic events and tsunamis (perhaps all).

In short, the integral and systemic theory developed by this Austrian astrophysicist radically rethinks, not only the beliefs about the origin of oil and other hydrocarbons, but the very foundations of geology and planetary astrophysics.

The book presented here aims to provide a synthesis of these ideas, framed in the new approaches about the nature of life and their distribution in space, developed by Fred Hoyle and other researchers from the Institute of Astrobiophysics of Cardiff.

We aim to introduce new evidence on an issue that until now has been considered unilaterally, and even in a dogmatic manner, by many scientists and academics, with significant implications in terms of the economy and society.

Will natural gas replace oil?

Natural gas is becoming more and more abundant, and at the same time, much cheaper. Also its distribution has become increasingly global, it can be shipped around the world much like oil with the LNG ocean tankers.

For these reason gradually it will replace oil in much of our everyday lives, particularly transportation and heating.

Althoug this will not happen immediately, natural gas could be a distruptive technology.  

It could become the hydrocarbon of choice for the entire world for much of what we now use oil for.  And in addition it is much cleaner than oil.

As it is known, natural gas may be cooled down to -160 degrees Celsius, and not only does it turn liquid, it reduces in volume 600 times. 

LNG is 1/600^th the volume of regular natural gas.  It is now shipped from continent to continent in tankersin that condensed form.  When it reaches port, it goes into a special LNG terminal, is heated up to normal and ready to go into a pipeline. 

For this reason the countries that possess natural gas fields are in a much better economic position. This is the case of Qatar and Iran, with their large field in the middle of the Persian Gulf, and the case of Russia which is exporting large quantities of natural gas to Europe. In Bolivia the natural gas production has increased considerable, and today the country has significantly improved its economic situation.

LNG is not yet a big factor in the US market, counting for some 3% of its use.  And because of all the low cost, abundant shale gas discovered in the last few years, it is unlikely LNG will ever be needed much here.

LNG terminals are being built around the world, especially in Asia.  The four big countries in LNG are Russia, Iran, Qatar and Indonesia.  RBC Capital Markets estimates global LNG production will increase over 30% in the next two years, or just under 10 billion cubic feet per day (bcf/d). All the shale gas in the US has increased production there by the same 10 bcf/d since 2002.  So the new LNG supply is the same as adding 3-4 major shale gas plays.

One important thing to note is that governments are big players in these LNG infrastructure projects that cost billions, and they need money for social services.  So LNG infrastructure will not get turned off during a regular price downturn at the bottom of a business cycle.  It will keep producing and shipping except under real economic duress (though we have had some of that lately!)

Qatar, for example, basically has a zero cost on its LNG, because of byproduct credits – other natural gas liquids in the mix. This means that the money Qatar makes on those other liquids pays for all the costs associated with the natural gas. While shipping and freezing/thawing the gas does have a cost, the point is the increasing new supply is fairly cheap gas by recent North American prices (RBC estimates $3-$4/mcf).

(to be continued)

Ref. 

https://oilandgas-investments.com/2009/natural-gas/could-natural-gas-replace-oil/

Methane and other compounds from the series of alkanes

Danilo Anton

Methane is by far the most abundant hydrocarbon both on Earth and on the various planetary bodies in the solar system. According to the abiogenic theory, methane forms at high pressures and temperatures in the mantle.
The basic formula is CH4. It is a gas that liquefies at very low temperatures (-161.6 degrees Celsius at 1 atmosphere pressure).
There are other members of the same series (alkanes) that include three compounds that are gaseous at ordinary temperature and pressure with formulas C2H6 (ethane), C3H8 (propane) and C4H10 (butane) . These four lower molecular weight alkanes (methante, ethane, propane and butane) which are gaseous on the Earth surface liquefy at low temperatures. 
The boiling point of methane at the Earth’s surface atmospheric pressure is -161.6  C, solidifying at very cold temperatures -182  C.
Ethane, propane and butane liquify relatively easily when subjected to high pressure (they are put into containers for use as cooking gas). Methane requires much higher pressures and therefore is impractical for this purpose.
Mixed with this gas there are several hydrocarbonaceous sulfurs, nitrogen compounds and organic oxygenates including metals (metal porphyrins with nickel, vanadium and iron).
The geological mixture of these gases is called “natural gas”. 
The relative proportions of methane, ethane, propane and butane in natural gas varies, but methane largely dominates (approximately with 70 to 90% of the mixture). 
Ethane, propane and butane are less than 20% and usually much less i.e.10%). In addition to the alkanes there are various amounts of other gases (carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, helium and rare gases).

Typical composition of natural gas                                          
Methane             CH4               70-90%               
Ethane                C2H6                                                            
 Propane             C3H8            * 0-20%
 Butane               C4H10                            
 Carbon dioxide  CO2               0-8%                 
oxygen                O2                  0-0.2%                             
nitrogen              N2                  0-5%
Hydrogen sulfide  H2S             0-5%  
Helium                He               approx. 1.5-7% 
rare gases          A, Ne, Xe       traces              
* + Ethane + propane butane              
Reference: naturalgas.org - http://www.naturalgas.org/overview/background.asp                                          
 The following alkanes (pentane, hexane, heptane, octane) are liquids at atmospheric conditions, with boiling temperatures ranging from 36.1 to 125.5 Co, solidifying (melting point) at temperatures between -57 Co -129.8 Co.

Abiotic Oil and Gas: A Theory That Refuses To Vanish

From peakoil news and message boards; Exploring hydrocarbons

In the West it is almost universally held that all oil and gas is derived from fossils. This is not the case elsewhere, particularly among Russian and Ukrainian scientists who have, over several generations, tenaciously propounded the notion that oil and gas are abiotic, can be found deep below the surface of the earth in most parts of the world and in very large amounts.

Western geologists and scientists find the theory either annoying or amusing and refuse to consider it seriously although there are exceptions. The theory continues to be held in much higher regard by Russian scientists and geologists (including some working in the West) for historical and perhaps ideological reasons.

Many Russian geologists and petroleum researchers credit the rise of Russia over the past 50 years as the largest producer of oil and second largest producer of natural gas in the world to the successful application of the abiogenic theory of oil and gas formation. The Russians claim to have successfully drilled over 300 ultra deep (around 40,000feet) oil and gas wells through granite and basalt based on this theory. These claims have been questioned by Western geologists and petroleum engineers.

The most recent attempt at gaining credence for the abiogenic idea was only a few months ago. A research team at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, led by Vladimir Kutherov, demonstrated that animal and plant fossils are not necessary for producing oil and natural gas. The team simulated the thermal and pressure processes that occur in the inner layers of the earth to generate hydrocarbons, the chief component of oil and natural gas. The team also noted that oil and gas has been found 7 miles below ground in Texas and fossil oil and gas could not, via, gravity have seeped down to such depths.

According to the Prof. Kutherov all types of bedrock can serve as reservoirs of hydrocarbon energy and their method of discovery can enhance exploration success rates from 20 % to 70 %. The research team has developed a new technique for locating oil and gas resources. It consists of dividing the globe into a fine grid, which corresponds to underground fissures or migration channels. Hydrocarbon resources will be found wherever migration channels intersect, predicts the team. 

An  abiogenic theory of petroleum is not new, dating from the 16^th century. In the 19^th century two very accomplished scientists, Alexander von Humboldt and Dimitri Mendeleev( of the Periodic Table fame) advanced the concept. In the 20^th century the Russian- Ukrainian School of geology emerged in the Soviet Union to vigorously formulate the modern theory of abiogenic oil and gas. In the West, the most eloquent and determined proponent was the famous astronomer Thomas Gold. After his death, Jack Kenney of Gas Resources Corporation has become the leading Western exponent.

The prevailing abiotic theory is that the full complement of hydrocarbons found in oil and gas are generated in the mantle (40 to 90 miles below the surface of the earth) by non-biological processes. These hydrocarbons then migrate out of the mantle into the crust where they escape or are trapped by impermeable strata that lead to reservoir formation.

Specific examples to support the abiotic theory have been cited over the years. Each example has been dismissed by the Western establishment as specious while it has been hailed by proponents as convincing. This is always so when a deeply entrenched belief and massive money flows encounter a subversive idea that profoundly threatens the prevailing order. The debate is becoming increasingly shrill as the two diametrically opposed views of Peak Oil and Abiogenic(Superabundant) Oil collide in a clash not only of science but, far more importantly, of money and ideology.

Specific examples cited are the impressive recharging from below, not the sides, of the Eugene Island field (wells in deep decline exhibiting sharply increased production; recovery far in excess of  estimated remaining reserves) off new Orleans; the White Tiger oil field in Vietnam( discovered by a Russian company, Vietsovpetro) in fractured basement granite; the Panhandle-Hugoton field (high helium content) in Teaxs-Oklahoma, the Shengli Field and Songliao Basin in Northeastern China( supposedly mantle derived natural gas), and the well known Chimaera natural gas seep in Turkey. This seep has been known to be continuously active for thousands of years and represents the largest cataloged emission of abiogenic methane on land. The vast amounts of methane released by the biggest mud volcano eruptions are allegedly greater than found in the most abundant natural gas fields in commercial production. The presence of considerable amounts of hydrocarbons not associated with tectonic structures is also presented as evidence and, of course, the enormous methane hydrate deposits found all over the world are asserted to be of abiogenic origin. Finally, theory advocates aver that the impressive record of recent ultra deep drilling in the Gulf of Mexico supports their idea.

The matrix of scientific, political and business interests in the West, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Brazil (an emerging oil exporter of consequence) and Venezuela that refuses to countenance abiogenic theories is big and potent. These interests want oil and gas to be scarce and expensive for a variety of reasons. It is natural and understandable that no credible test of the theory will be attempted within the ambit of these interests.

The Russian authorities and oil and gas companies seem to be deeply conflicted between intellectual pride (it is their theory, after all) and the desire to keep oil and gas prices high via the idea of scarcity when talking to the rest of the world about their abiogenic oil and gas reserves.

It seems to the author, however, that China and India have compelling economic and national security interests in proving or disproving the theory, convincingly. If the theory is false then they are no worse off than today. If it is correct then they, of the major nations in the world, have the most to gain in subverting the prevailing oil and gas order of the world. So, of course, do scores of millions of ordinary Americans who care nothing about theories but want cheap, abundant, reliable oil and gas.

http://peakoil.com/geology/abiotic-oil-and-gas-a-theory-that-refuses-to-vanish

Petroleum and Natural Gas are not FOSSIL fuels

A theory about the Earth dynamics that fits the data of reality

Danilo Anton

One of the main processes of internal dynamism of planets is outgassing. This involves the gradual rise of relatively light elements or compounds, which assume a gaseous state at sub-surface and surface pressure and temperature.
The main molecules that are part of the gaseous envelopes of the terrestrial planets are nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide and water. Nitrogen is relatively abundant and tends to exudate outward forming "nitrogenous atmospheres" (when the planet's gravity is sufficient to hold them). Because of its chemically stable character it does not combine in its rise or during its stay in the atmosphere.
Carbon and hydrogenated compounds, by contrast, tend to have a much more active, particularly in the presence of some oxygen minerals, such as metal oxides and sulphates.
The fractures in the crust producced by compression, distention and heating as well as astronomical tides, facilitate the rise.
When combined with oxygen, methane: CH4 (which is the most common molecule in planetary interiors) generates CO2, CO and H2O, depending on the availability of oxygen. These carbonaceous fluids are injected into the solid masses generating lateral pressure in the fractures, widening and lubricating them. Thus, the movement of rock blocks, producing earthquakes and gas ejections are possible.
It is considered that most of the atmospheric and ocean carbon is immobilized in the form of carbonates. This composition can be logically explained by the theories of planetary degassing and mineral oil and gas and oxidation processes occurring in the subsurface layers.
Some authors (Thomas Gold, 1992 and 1999) attributed the occurrence of this process to the metabolism of underground bacteria. When methane in its ascent reaches a  depth of 5-10 kilometers with temperatures below 150 degrees Celsius a large underground bactetia flora develop. These bacteria are called hyperthermobacteria belonging to the Archaea biological domain. These bacteria base their metabolism in the oxidation of methane, producing CO2 and H2O from oxides, sulphates and other salts. Thus, reduced  oxides (eg magnetite), sulfides (pyrite, chalcopyrite, etc.) and other comopounds are formed . Part of the generated methane survives and emerges from the ocean floor and continents into the atmosphere being oxidized (forming CO2 amd water).  This water of "biochemical" origin is added to the water aporttadas by comet, asteroids and meteorites.
Upwelling of this set of deep (or "juvenile") water with various salts dissolved accumulates on the surface in oceans and other water bodies. There are methane seeps wherever there are ducts (fractures) to relieve pressure and allow its emergence. On the seabed, where the crust is thinner, there are countless sources of emission of methane and its by-products (water vapor, carbon dioxide). Cold water and results in the formation of methane hydrates which in some ocean floor areas may have hicknesses of several tens of meters.